Juan Rulfo: A Unique Voice, A Unique Eye

It is always fascinating for me to listen to the recordings of authors reading their own work.  Juan Rulfo, the esteemed Mexican author, had an entrancing reading voice that seems to me to capture the ebb and flow of his writing: it is itself almost a force of nature, but an understated, quiet one.  You can listen to him reading his story, "Luvina," here.

When we read Rulfo's work, it is sometimes difficult not to place him within a distinctly national context: he was known, first, as a Mexican writer.  But his voice echoes across national borders in the work of  Gabriel García Márquez (Columbia), Roberto Bolaño (Chile, Mexico, El Salvador, France, Spain), and Sandra Cisneros (U.S.A.).  Each of these writers has found something in Rulfo that resonates: a hyperreal sense of place, an unsettling sense of time arrested and continuous at once, a respect for unpresuming voices-- those voices barely heard elsewhere. 

Rulfo was not only a great writer: he was an accomplished photographer as well.  His distinctive literary voice-- lyrical, simple, haunting-- finds its corrollary in his beautiful images of rural Mexico.  Here are a few:

The Problem of Speaking for Others

Here we have a cartoon, drawn by Ashcan artist John Sloan, which indicates his interest in a political aesthetic of Anarchism and a critical stance toward bourgeois commercial consumption.  In this image, titled "Indian Detour," we see tourists avoiding what D.H. Lawrence described as the trap of "making the Indian and his 'religion'... a sort of public pet."  At the same time, we can visually comprehend the "problem of speaking for others" that Linda Alcoff discusses in her groundbreaking 1991 essay, "The Problem of Speaking for Others."  What is being learned or experienced here?  Who even cares?  Consider this image in the light of Edward Said's claim that "far more than they fight, cultures coexist and interact fruitfully with each other."

Alicia Schmidt Camacho on Femicides in Ciudad Juarez

Professor Camacho (American Studies, Yale University) has written a very interesting article about the relationship between citizenship, state responsibility, and impunity in the femicides in Cuidad Juarez.

Concept of ethnicity, class, and gender through Cinema

“I wished…. I wish my child would never be born. No. Not into this world.” (Salt of the Earth, 1954). Those were the last words spoken by Esperanza in her introductory narrative for the 1954 cinematic production, Salt of the Earth. The introductory narrative, especially the last line, intrigued me. I am usually not one to watch anything not Star Wars made after 1985, but something about this movie and the discussions we have been having about the borderlands flipped a switch for me. I liked it even more when I heard it had been banned in the United States. I wondered what this movie would represent, what its message was. What I soon learned was that it tackles the issues of ethnicity, class, and gender. These key subjects are even touched on in the fifty eight second original trailer. What the movie ultimately proves is that the best way to accomplish a goal is to come together, putting all differences aside.

A vast concept of Salt of the Earth is ethnicity and the role it plays in how individuals are treated. Most of the mine workers are of Mexican decent where as the owner of the company and the police officers are white. In my opinion, the producers of this film are making the point that the white men have the power over the other ethnicities. The owner of the mining company refuses to give into the demands of the workers even when the mine conditions become extremely hazardous. When asking for safer working conditions the boss replies “Read your contract or get someone to read it for you.” (Salt of the Earth). The boss is insinuating that because the man is Mexican is unintelligent and illiterate. The unsafe working conditions force the workers, mostly Mexican, to go on strike. The men picket the entrance to the mine and chase away any scab workers. The writer of the movie could be send a message to all minorities that if you want to be treated as an equal you must stand up for yourself rather than allowing the same ethnical discrimination to continue.

The next key concept is economic class. The movie shows the large discrepancy between the lower class and the upper class. Esperanza and Ramon struggle to make payment and put food on the table where as the boss of the company drivers around in beautiful car and wears expensive suits. This is yet again another issue of power; those who are financially better of hold the power. This is why the bosses allow the strike to continue for so long. They believe that once the families run out of funds they will willingly comeback to working in the same horrible conditions they had previously worked in. The same point that is made about ethnicity is made about class. If those of the lower class would like to hold some of the power they need to take that power because if they continue on the same path they have in the past they will ultimately still be pushed around by the upper class. In Salt of the Earth the lower class does rebel from the power held over them by the upper class when they go on strike. Yes the strike is the main plot point of the movie, but it can have a deeper mean as well, a more general lesson. That lesson is that when people come together they are a hard stop. This is the exact case in the movie. The bosses try everything in their power to bring the miner back to work, but the lower class stays strong; they help each other. An example of this is the union supplies food to the families. The women even go to take the spots of the men in the picket line. Class still plays a large role in today’s society, let alone 1954 when this movie was filmed, but what this black and white movie is showing us is that the class system can be overcome by coming together for the common good.

The last key notion is that of gender. The idea of gender roles is turned upside down in this film. This is not something that was thought highly of in the nineteen fifties. Esperanza is the best example of a complete gender role transformation. In the beginning of the movie she is seen as the typical house wife who says home and takes care of the children, but this changes once she decides, against her husband’s wishes, to stand up for what she believes and march on the picket line. It’s worth noting that she is pregnant at the time. In one part of the film she is struck by Ramon, she responds by saying, "Never strike me again--that was the old way. Sleep where you please but not with me." (Salt of the Earth, 1954). The Esperanza that was introduced at the beginning of the film would not dare talk to her husband that way, but now she was the one who was standing up for her family and refused to be spoken to as anything but an equal. This goes for the rest of the women in the film as well. When the police get a court order removing the men from the picket line the women step up and take their place. Many of the women even go to jail for the cause. This is another message and that message is that men and women are equal. They are both able to achieve great accomplishments. The film also makes it a point to show that things work much better when men and women are supportive of each other. Salt of the Earth is innovative in its portrayal of women. Women are not seen at this time as doers, but followers. This movie completely turns that idea upside down. The men of the film find a greater respect for the women in their lives.

Through all the key concepts represented in Salt of the Earth one cannot ignore the most prevailing idea. The idea is coming together despite differences is the best way to accomplish goals. One can see that throughout the entire story. Countless examples are shown again and again. The mine workers and their wives are able to overcome ethnicity issues, class issues, and most of all gender issues. It is obvious to me that the film is about much more than an entertaining story line but more of an underlining message and maybe even a call to action for equality in the United States. This is something that we as Americans still continue to move towards even today. Countless examples of how we have improves are highly noted, our first black president. But we still have not perfected equality. Racism, gender discrimination, and class differences are still prevalent in today’s society even more than fifty years after Salt of the Earth was released. Manuel Apuy writes a very interesting article inequalities very much exist but have become almost undetectable.  What we are still attempting to learn is that coming together, as they did in the film, is the only way we can achieve the equality that our country speaks of having. Films are writing like this are attempting to send that message. The message of equality rains down from every part of this spectacular cinematic masterpiece.



Other Interesting Links

Movie Summary

Online Book about borderland issues
Work place gender gap


Written by John Morris

One People

The American Southwest at the turn of the twentieth century was a place where Native Americans and Whites interacted every day. Whether it was riding along the trail, stopping at the trading post, or even exchanging cattle and hard goods, this interaction briefly closed the gap between cultures and brought racially fueled tension upon the area. Oliver La Farge’s Laughing Boy shows us multiple examples of these certain situations.


The first of the interactions happens at the dance at the beginning of the book. Laughing Boy has just won some goods off of another man in a bet and wants to sell something, so he and Jesting Squaw’s Son meet with the two American’s who attended the dance. The tourist and his guide are put off at first, apparently they had been persuaded into feeding several stray indians that day, this was the first of many examples of the Navajo trying to take advantage of the ignorant whites. The tourist takes and interest in the belts around Laughing Boy’s waist and allowed them to sit down. Before they begin the negotiations, the Indian boys are offered a “big black cigarette”. The tobacco brings them both almost to the point of vomiting, but they make it a point not to show their discomfort in front of the foreign men. They begin bartering and there is a noticeable lack of respect on both sides, with the boys trying to swindle the white men out of as much money and tobacco as possible, and the white men trying to pay as little as they could for the goods. In the end neither really wins and they end up paying what the belt was worth. On the last day of that same dance, another incident occurred.

Before the horse races, a shot was heard. All the Navajo men rushed toward the sound with their weapons, the younger ones all hoping for a fight. The scene included many Navajo, several Americans, and a few men from other tribes. The Navajo men lined up in front of the area in a slightly crescent shaped line, within bow range. The older men wanted no trouble, for fear that it would bring soldiers onto the reservation, but to the younger braves, something had been started and if the tribal officials would step aside it could be finished. The edges of the crescent begin to extend and they would soon have the area surrounded. Just then it is noticed that some Americans are wounded and immediately the mood lightens slightly. The break in tension allows the officials to explain that an American and a Navajo were selling whiskey and when they were being arrested the Navajo man started shooting and killed a Hopi, starting all the excitement. Smiles spread across the faces of the Navajo men once they heard that it was a Hopi man killed. Having found that only a Hopi man was killed and an American and a Navajo were only to be jailed, the men went back to their horses. The policemen from the other tribes were disappointed they didn’t get to fight any Navajo. This situation further illustrated Navajo’s disdain for Americans and the lack of respect between different tribes in the area.

Later on, after another dance, Laughing Boy, Slim Girl, and several other Navajo rode toward their homes and approached an established trading post with a relatively new owner. The trading post was run by an American who bought the business to make a living swindling the Navajo, but he wasn’t as bright as they were and they usually ended up tricking him. Laughing Boy pretends to be interested in trading his expensive horse bridle to convince the shop owner to supply he and his friends with coffee, tobacco, and candies. He then takes his bridle off the counter and tells the man he’s no longer interested in selling. Once again the quality of the relationship between Americans and Navajo is demonstrated through tricks and lies.

Laughing Boy does not give much hope for the two cultures one day cooperating peacefully and respectfully with one another. In fact, we have seen that the Americans oppressed the indigenous population until the point where they almost disappeared. Today, we treat them like an endangered species, kept largely confined and seen as needing our help to survive. In fact, throughout the book, there are no examples of positive, respectful, mutually beneficial interaction between the Natives and the Americans. They stole Slim Girl from her home and tried to teach the ways of the Navajo out of her system. They turned her away when they found she was pregnant. Even her relationship with George was based on nothing but her own revenge for wrongs done to her in the past.

Knowing what happens in the world this book was based in after the story was over makes it difficult to speculate on the relationship between the two cultures displayed in the book; however, with the interactions La Farge describes in the book, it seems he could see the future of the issue. Wrongs were committed on both sides by both parties, but by the time the story is over it seems that there is no permanently bridging the gap between these two cultures.

People are the same where ever you go, but as much evidence as gets presented that mankind is capable of coming together, it seems that more than twice that amount surfaces to say we will never truly be one people.

-- AW

Salt of the Earth

The movie Salt of the Earth showed me many hardships that members of the borderlands faced with the movement of the Anglo-Americans. The unsafe workspaces, the disrespect they received from coworkers, but it also showed me the strength of the native people of the area. The miners of the time were facing adversity from every aspect of the workplace therefore they decided to strike. Not only did the Anglo-Americans change the workplaces, they also changed the name of the town from San Marcos, to Zinc Town. All these affects were forced on the Mexican-Americans of Zinc Town. Although the Mexican-Americans faced struggles, they still had the power to strike. Once the president of the mining company decided that the men working in the mines did not need a worker for safety in the mines. The extra worker was used for safety and looking out for dangerous spots. Once these extra workers were taken away, not only the miners were affected, the entire town was affected because each worker had a family and everything was tied into the mine. Due to everyone involved with the town the strike was bound to happen. A labor strike is going to happen whenever workers are unhappy with wages, work conditions, or the way they are being treated. A strike is a massive work stoppage by the refusal of workers to work. Strikes occur all around the world today, and the workers are protected by Unions. The goal of a strike is to work out an agreement via contract between employee and employers. The strike from Salt of the Earth was possible because all of the workers stuck together and knew what they wanted, safer work areas. Ramon was a leader throughout the strike, he wanted rights, but he contradicted himself at home by treating his wife as inferior to him. But he later realized while on strike and at home with the kids the tough job she had to do every day while he worked. Strikes today are protected by laws and supported by workers unions, but during this time period they were not allowed to strike. They were forced off of the picket line by the Taft-Hartley Act, but this did not put an end to the picket line, the women supported their men and filled in for them while they were forced out. Although this was not the first strike of all time, it was a very important one and very influential on strikes that happen nowadays. There have been an infinite amount of strikes that have happened in the United States, and all over the world. It does not have to be just manual labor strikes it is any type of labor that can strike, for instance the writer’s strike during 2007 and 2008. The Writers Guild decided they need to strike because they were not receiving the large funds that all the studios were receiving. Writer's Strike The video shows that the writers were unsatisfied workers. Strikes are ways for workers to either get what they feel they deserve, or for safety reasons. The human right to a safe workplace is essential. An unsafe work area can cause more problems than any company would want to deal with, lawsuits and loss of employees can occur, or in the situation with Salt of the Earth they strike. The strike can only work if every employee joins in and there are not any scabs. A scab is a worker that crosses the picket line. Scabs In a picket line the workers stand outside the worksite with signs and chants and walk around, showing the people in charge that they are unhappy with the circumstances they face. Picket Line. As you can see the people doing the picketing do not always have to be against working they can also be picketing something they believe in. Picket lines are very controversial and can be dangerous at times. I feel that strikes and picket lines are a very unreasonable way of getting what you want. If a child is not allowed to play with a toy and they pout and cry for a time period, the parent is not supposed to buckle down and give the child the toy. The protestors do deserve better circumstances but I do not believe this is the proper approach. It works most of the time but I feel as if they are pouting about the situation instead of finding a solution to deal with the problem.


By: John Garvin

The Legend of Fray Baltazar

We start out our story by learning about the Indian uprising in which all the missionaries and all the Spaniards in northern New Mexico were either driven our or murdered. We are now set in the time period about 15 years later after the country had been reconquered with new missionaries and Frier Baltazar Montoya is introduced as the priest of Acoma. Our story goes on to tell the story of Fay Baltazar, the corrupt priest who treats the native people of New Mexico very poorly and as if they were basically his slaves. The story shows the great example of how when people are mistreated and are attempted to be controlled how the human spirit will always come out and an uprising is sure to come. No human should be treated lesser than any other human and when pushed into a corner, all humans will fight for their rights to live their lives free from persecution and control.

We are introduced to the corrupt priest, Friar Montoya, who was known for having a tyrannical and overbearing position and showed a hard hand on the natives of New Mexico. Montoya treated the natives as second-class people. “It was his belief that the pueblo of Acoma existed chiefly to support is fine church, and that this should be the pride of the Indians as it was his. He took the best of their corn and beans and squashes for his table, and selected the choicest portion when they slaughtered a sheep, chose their best hides to carpet his dwelling. Moreover, he exacted a heavy tribute in labor.” He had no intention of treating the Indians as one of God’s children but instead he treated them as people that could do things for him and that he could benefit from. He was sent Acoma to bring peace and religion, yet he only brought greed, anger and discrimination to this already ravaged land.

Montoya had originally come to Acoma and was a very active man who traveled far to obtain fruits and other items to make his house and his garden a beautiful sanctuary, but soon his mind and heart became filled with power and greed. Montoya decided to start using the Indian people to fulfill his desires and to make his life easier, without thinking about what he was doing to the Indians. Cather states. “It was clear that the Friar at Acoma lived more after the flesh than after the spirit. “ Montoya quickly went from being a respected holy man to being a man whose only goal was to fill his own desires. He soon had multiple servant boys who he treated poorly and trained to do whatever Montoya desired. Montoya held his “magical power” over the heads of the native people who were too afraid of what the repercussions of a revolt might do. Cather states, “Baltazar’s tyranny grew little by little, and the Acoma people were sometimes at the point of revolt. But they could no estimate just how powerful the Padre’s magic might be and were afraid to put it to the test. There was no doubt that the holy picture of St. Joseph had come to them from the Kind of Spain by the request of this Padre, and that picture had been more effective in averting drought than all the native rain-makers had been.” Montoya used his position of power and the lack of education to keep the Indian people in fear and inferior to him so that they would be too afraid to have an uprising. Fear and religion have been used to control the masses for as long as man has been around, and Montoya made sure he kept this trend going.

Soon Montoya decided that he wanted some company and someone whom he could show off his amazing gardens, house, and control of the Indians to. He decided to throw an extravagant dinner party and invite other priests from around the area to join. Montoya had perfected his favorite sauce and was bragging and boasting to the other priests on how amazing it was. As the sauce became ready and was brought out, the little servant boy tripped and spilled the sauce everywhere. Montoya became enraged, threw a cup at the servant boy’s head and killed him right there on the spot. The other priests, knowing this situation would have a horrible ending, left as soon as the incident happened. Soon the Indian people found out and went and got Montoya and brought him to the top of a cliff where they hanged him and finally ended his control of the natives.

This story is about the struggles and hardships that the native people had to endure in this time period. The goal of the missionaries and priests were to bring the different groups of people together as one and to prosper together, but the human need for power and dominance continued to take over and separate the people. The Indians were constantly discriminated against for their heritage and for their lack of the Christian religion. This story shows the many attempts to bridge the gap between the people but the constant failures that keep occurring. This story shows how cultures continue to try to dominate other cultures and how this constantly causes heartache, death, discrimination, and a world full of hate. This story shows the importance of equality and how humans should work together as one single species to make the world a harmonious place. There will always be people who are trying to achieve more power and use people to get ahead in life and to control, but it is our duty to keep uprising and keep revolting against this unfair treatment so that we can one day reach or goal of a utopian society. We also need to remember to hold these figures of power to the same standards as all people. Just because a person is given a place of power doesn’t mean we shouldn’t constantly question and check them. It takes a whole community to keep peace and harmony; it only takes one person to create hate, discrimination and hardship. It is our goal as a society to make sure this doesn’t happen anymore.
--PM